[17] “On the Arrangement of the Muscular Fibres in the Ventricles of the Vertebrate Heart, with Physiological Remarks,” by the Author.--Philosophical Transactions, 1864.
“On the Muscular Arrangements of the Bladder and Prostate, and the manner in which the Ureters and Urethra are closed,” by the Author.--Philosophical Transactions, 1867.
“On the Muscular Tunics in the Stomach of Man and other Mammalia,” by the Author.--Proceedings Royal Society of London, 1867.
[Illustration: FIG. 9.--The Superficial Muscles in the Horse, (after Bagg).]
It has been the almost invariable custom in teaching anatomy, and such parts of physiology as pertain to animal movements, to place much emphasis upon the configuration of the bony skeleton as a whole, and the conformation of its several articular surfaces in particular. This is very natural, as the osseous system stands the wear and tear of time, while all around it is in a great measure perishable. It is the link which binds extinct forms to living ones, and we naturally venerate and love what is enduring. It is no marvel that Oken, Goethe, Owen, and others should have attempted such splendid generalizations with regard to the osseous system--should have proved with such cogency of argument that the head is an expanded vertebra. The bony skeleton is a miracle of design very wonderful and very beautiful in its way. But when all has been said, the fact remains that the skeleton, when it exists, forms only an adjunct of locomotion and motion generally. All the really essential movements of an animal occur in its soft parts. The osseous system is therefore to be regarded as secondary in importance to the muscular, of which it may be considered a differentiation. Instead of regarding the muscles as adapted to the bones, the bones ought to be regarded as adapted to the muscles. Bones have no power either of originating or perpetuating motion. This begins and terminates in the muscles. Nor must it be overlooked, that bone makes its appearance comparatively late in the scale of being; that innumerable creatures exist in which no trace either of an external or internal skeleton is to be found; that these creatures move freely about, digest, circulate their nutritious juices and blood when present, multiply, and perform all the functions incident to life. While the skeleton is to be found in only a certain proportion of the animals existing on our globe, the soft parts are to be met with in all; and this appears to me an all-sufficient reason for attaching great importance to the movements of soft parts, such as protoplasm, jelly masses, involuntary and voluntary muscles, etc.[18] As the muscles of vertebrates are accurately applied to each other, and to the bones, while the bones are rigid, unyielding, and incapable of motion, it follows that the osseous system acts as a break or boundary to the muscular one,--and hence the arbitrary division of muscles into extensors and flexors, pronators and supinators, abductors and adductors. This division although convenient is calculated to mislead. The most highly organized animal is strictly speaking to be regarded as a living mass whose parts (hard, soft, and otherwise) are accurately adapted to each other, every part reciprocating with scrupulous exactitude, and rendering it difficult to determine where motion begins and where it terminates. Fig. 9 shows the more superficial of the muscular masses which move the bones or osseous levers of the horse, as seen in the walk, trot, gallop, etc. A careful examination of these carneous masses or muscles will show that they run longitudinally, transversely, and obliquely, the longitudinal and transverse muscles crossing each other at nearly right angles, the oblique ones tending to cross at various angles, as in the letter X. The crossing is seen to most advantage in the deep muscles.