(a) It is wrong because my conscience pricks me, and my conscience pricks me because it is wrong.
(b) “The effeminate walk shows a lack of force; because no forceful man walks that way.”
(c) Says Hamilton, “Plato, in his _Phoedo_, demonstrates the immortality of the soul from its simplicity; and in the _Republic_, he demonstrates its simplicity from its immortality.”
(3) _Question Begging Epithets and Appellations._
This is the fallacy of assuming the point at issue by means of a carefully selected epithet.
Scientists sometimes assume to clarify an inexplicable phenomenon by giving it a technical name. Politicians are exceedingly free with their epithets and appellations, and the records of religious disputes prove that the theologian often resorted to this device.
_Examples of begging the question by using epithets and appellations_:
(a) We must attribute the disease to _heredity_.
(b) The candidate for governor is an _animated feather duster_.
(e) The _muck-raker_ seldom makes an efficient servant of the people.
It is seen that the use of these epithets and appellations is simply a rhetorical device for the purpose of creating either a favorable or unfavorable impression.
THE LOGICAL FALLACIES OF DEDUCTIVE REASONING.
(1) A negative aspect of definition of logic.
(2) Paralogism and sophism. Distinguished. Mission of Socrates.
(3) A division of the deductive fallacies. More or less faulty. Aristotle’s phraseology retained. Division given.
(4) General divisions explained. Formal and material. Material fallacies in _language_ and in _thought_.
(5) Fallacies of immediate inference. Opposition, obversion, conversion, contraversion.
(6) Fallacies in language (also fallacies of equivocation). Ambiguous middle――distinguished from four terms. Amphibology. Accent. Composition――“all” a pitfall. Division. Figure of speech.
(7) Fallacies in thought――(also fallacies of assumption). Accident. Converse accident. Made possible by exceptions. Accident and converse accident distinguished from composition and division. Comparative résumé. Irrelevant conclusion (_ignoratio elenchi_). _Argumentum ad populum._ _Argumentum ad hominem._ _Argumentum ad ignorantiam._ _Argumentum ad baculum._ _Argumentum ad verecundiam._ _Non sequitur_ (false consequent). False cause. Complex question. Begging the question (_petitio principii_). Assumption of premise. Reasoning in a circle. Question begging epithets and appellations.