The architecture of Afghanistan refers to a distinct style of architecture of the modern country and its predecessor states. As the connection between the three major cultural and geographic centers of Central Asia, the Indian subcontinent, and the Iranian plateau, the boundaries of the region prior to this time changed with the rapid advancement of armies, with the land belonging to a vast range of empires over the last two millennia.
The diversity of Afghan history allows for the diverse and at the same time unique style that exists in the country's architecture and architectural remains, with influences ranging over time from Greek to Persian, to Indian and European in recent centuries. A range of religious influences over time are also reflected, with evidence primarily exhibiting early Buddhist, Zoroastrian and Islamic inspiration.
Architectural origins
With the advent of the Iron Age in Central Asia the first indications of circular city planning is evident, typical across the Iranian plateau from this point. The circular form most likely had defensive intent as their origin. Parts of the major historical cities such as Balkh and Kandahar have evidence of ramparts with foundations dated back to this period, with characteristic mud-brick construction and towers at regular intervals. A citadel was also commonly situated within the center of these structures, evidence that these settlements also operated as administrative centers and market places. This tradition of defensive architecture was spread and maintained across much of Central Asia from these beginnings.
Hellenic influence
Following Alexander the Great's conquest of the region in the 4th century BC and the subsequent rule of his Seleucid generals, Hellenistic influences strengthened previously extant connections to the West. This was particularly evident in the north of the region, while Mauryan rule continued in the south. Although temples retained their distinct classic Buddhist form, evidence of Greek architects are extant in the decoration and layout of the structures, with sculptures being the key manifestation of Western art. The Greeks also influenced town planning with the introduction of the agora, or city center square, with this tradition further developed in under the later Timurid rule creating an advanced architecture in design of cities.
Early Buddhist architecture
With the establishment of the Kushan empire both political and dynastic centers were established, with one such dynastic center identified in Afghanistan at Surkh Kotal, established during the height of Buddhism in Afghanistan. Excavations of the site revealed a monumental set of stairs leading down the hillside from a Kushan temple, with these built in the first half of the 2nd century AD. Zoroastrian associations are possibly evident in fire worship symbols, and exist alongside Buddhist architectural features. Hellenistic pilasters and column bases alongside a limestone with Greek letter inscriptions of an unknown language are evidence of Western influence, while Iranian influences may also exist within the concept of a monumental dynastic centre.
Artificial cave structures were a primary feature of Buddhist communities, reaching its zenith through the adoption of Buddhism by Hephthalites with the caves utilized as sanctuaries and cells for Buddhist monks. The most prominent example of these in Afghanistan are in Bamiyan Province, which became the capital of Buddhism in the 4th century AD under Hephthalite rule. Hundreds of these such caves exist at this site, which is also notable for its immense Buddha statues and their public destruction by the Taliban in 2001.
The stupa
Within this period came the widespread construction of the stupa, a key architectural form of the early Buddhist period. This structure developed from the original earthen mounds built in north-eastern India following the death of Buddha, with the role of the structure progressing from a commemorative reliquary to a place of worship itself. This occurred around the 3rd century BC with the opening of the original stupas by Emperor Ashoka in order to utilise relics to disseminate the religion, coinciding with the dissemination of the structure itself. With this development of purpose came a lengthy and complex development of form, from an earthen mound to solid masonry structures consisting of a square base beneath a hemispheric dome. Eventually, this form came to be dwarfed by an adornment of a mast featuring seven umbrella-like discs, or chakras, each representing a different layer of heaven. These structures were rarely isolated, with other stupas and traditional Buddhist monasteries and chapels commonly in the vicinity.