All the kinds of governments were known in America: Theocracy, despotism, monarchy, oligarchy, and democracy. But the most prevailing were theocracy among the civilized nations, oligarchy among the barbarous nations: with two peculiar modifications, of double kings as among Arabs, civil and military; and chiefs of families or tribes, as among all primitive nations. Queens were known to but few tribes, although the female line was often hereditary. Written laws and codes were known to the Tol-tecas, Mexicans, Mayans, Muyzcas, Panos, Peruvians, &c. Oral laws were elsewhere preserved by priests or magistrates.
Polygamy prevailed among some tribes or castes, but was not universal. The 4 castes of Indians are distinctly found in nearly all the civilized nations, often modified into priests, nobles, vassals and slaves. The arts of music, medicine, smithery, painting, sculpture, architecture, agriculture, pottery, &c., were well known to nearly all. The sciences of geometry, geography, botany, astronomy, &c., were cultivated from Mexico to Peru, even taught in schools and colleges; with the arts, the laws, the rites, and history of the country.
Marsden has well distinguished several degrees of civilization in Asia. If no American nation had reached the Greeks and Romans, or our modern polished and improved civilization; it is not extraordinary. But the Peruvians, Muyzcas, Tol-tecas, Mexicans, Talascas, &c., were nearly equal to the Chinese, Egyptians and Hindus in civilization; not far removed from the European civilization of the 15th century: nay, in some things superior. The second degree of American civilization found in Chili, Florida, Cumana, the Antilles, Popayan, the Linapis, Omaguas &c. was equal to that of the Arabs, Malays, Celts, Cantabrians, Pelagians, &c. While the third degree found in all the barbarous nations, Innuit or Esquimaux, Shoshonis, Caribs, Brazilians, &c. was not worse than what we find among the Fins, Laplanders, Tartars, Sames, Negroes and Hottentots.
Individual property in land was almost unknown in America; but feodal and tribal property well understood. Common property of tribes and villages over their territories, was the most usual tenure, modified by wars, conquests, tributes. Individual property existed only for tenements and personal property. Warfares, marriages and funerals were very different in every nation. The weapons of war were clubs, arrows, darts, lances, axes, Macana swords, Sarbacanes or blowing tubes, slings, nooses, thronged balls, &c. as elsewhere. There was a peculiar diplomacy, with heralds, envoys, messengers. Shields, towers, forts, walls, ditches, were used for defence, besides _Estopils_ a peculiar quilted armor. Flags, banners, and standards were known. The calumets, leaves or green feathers, council fires, and white flags were emblems of peace. Alliances and confederations existed from earliest times, also the adoption of tribes and prisoners. Slavery was hardly known; but vassalage much extended over conquered tribes.