(, ; singular , , ) were a social class of women, trained as entertainers, which existed in the pre-modern Islamic world. The term has been used for both non-free women and free, including some of which came from the nobility. It has been suggested that "the geisha of Japan are perhaps the most comparable form of socially institutionalized female companionship and entertainment for male patrons, although, of course, the differences are also myriad".
Historically, the flourished under the Umayyad Caliphate, the Abbasid Caliphate, and in Al-Andalus.
Terminology
is often rendered in English as or , but these translations do not reflect the fact that might be of any age, and were skilled entertainers whose training extended well beyond singing, including for example dancing, composing music and verse, reciting historical or literary anecdotes (), calligraphy, or shadow-puppetry. Other translations include , , or simply .
In some sources, were a subset of (, ; singular , ), and often more specifically a subset of (, ; singular , ). are thus at times referred to as (, ) or as (, ; singular , ). Many were free women. One of them was even an Abbasid princess.
The term originates as a feminine form of the pre-Islamic term (), whose meaning was . The meaning of extended to include manual labourers generally, and then focused more specifically on people paid for their work, and then more specifically again . From here, its feminine form came to have the meaning of a female performer of various arts, in a specific role.
Characteristics and history
Like other slaves in the Islamicate world, were legally sexually available to their owners. They were often associated in literature with licentiousness, and sexuality was an important part of their appeal, but they do not seem to have been prostitutes.
However, there were also common who performed for the public in common -houses, and these houses were in some cases often brothels.
It is not clear how early the institution of the emerged, but certainly flourished during the ‘Abbasid period; according to Matthew S. Gordon, "it is not yet clear to what extent courtesans graced regional courts and elite households at other points of Islamic history". Ibrahim al-Mawsili (742–804 CE) is reported to have claimed that his father was the first to train light-skinned, beautiful girls as , raising their price, whereas previously had been drawn from among girls viewed as less beautiful, and with darker skin, though it is not certain that these claims were accurate. One social phenomenon that can be seen as a successor to the is the Egyptian , courtesans or female entertainers in Medieval Egypt, educated to sing and recite classical poetry and to discourse wittily.
Because of their social prominence, comprise one of the most richly recorded sections of pre-modern Islamicate female society, particularly female slaves, making them important to the history of slavery in the Muslim world. Moreover, a significant proportion of medieval Arabic female poets whose work survives today were . For a few , it is possible to give quite a full biography. Important medieval sources of include a treatise by al-Jahiz (776–868/869 CE), Abu Tayyib al-Washsha's ( ), and anecdotes included in sources such as the () and () by Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani (897–967 CE), () by ibn al-Sāʿī, and () by al-Suyuti (). Many of these sources recount the repartee of prominent , though there are hints that in less wealthy households were used by their owners to attract gifts. In the 'Abbasid period, were often educated in the cities of Basra, Ta'if, and Medina.
Decline
The institution of declined with the waning fortunes of the Abbasid Caliphate. The initial fracture of the Abbasids did not have immediate impact. The did not take sides in political disputes. However, political instability led to fiscal mismanagement, and during the Abbasids' heyday, the finances were mismanaged. Further, the new class of Turkish soldiers demanded better pay, leading to the emptying of the treasury; the resulting austerity meant artistic activity could not be funded, and thus flourish, as it had previously. In addition, soldiers extorted money from citizens perceived as rich. This made ostentatious behavior risky.