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Time-Energy Use and Life History Strategies of Northern Seabirds
Time and energy budgets can be compared among species of birds with very different ecology as a way of summarizing differences and as an approach to determining selective pressures on each species. This paper reviews time-energy use of northern seabirds. Energetic cost of maintenance (basal metabolism, thermoregulation, and procurement and processing of food) depends largely on the following factors: (1) small birds have higher metabolic costs per unit size than do larger ones; (2) body structure affects the cost of locomotion as well as of food procurement; (3) climate affects metabolic costs; and (4) food availability and nutrition vary among food types, and throughout the year within a food type. Little is known of maintenance energetics in seabirds. Time and energy allocations to items beyond basic maintenance are also compared. Patterns and costs of molt and migration are known only in a general way, and the variety of possible patterns suggests that more research would be of value. Almost nothing is known of location and daily activities of seabirds outside the breeding season. The review of breeding season activities is more comprehensive, and stresses the variety of factors known to affect timing, and the total time devoted to and the energetic costs of various aspects of reproduction. Some of these factors are weather, year, geographic location, feeding conditions, age, sex, and distance of food source from the breeding colony. Species characteristics such as clutch size, egg and yolk size, developmental type, growth rate, food type, and behavior combine with environmental variables to make seabirds a very diverse group in time and energy budgeting. Time-energy studies and determination of productive energy (energy remaining after maintenance needs have been met) can be useful in pinpointing those groups of birds and the times of year when birds are most vulnerable to environmental stress. Life history considerations suggest that most seabirds are adapted to low population turnover and would not be able to recover quickly from sudden increases in mortality.